It’s lucky you’re here.
13.7 billion years ago, the universe was born in a cosmic fireball. Roughly 10 billion years later, the planet we call Earth gave birth to life, which eventually led to you. The probability of that sequence of events is absolutely minuscule, and yet it still happened.
Take a step back from the unlikeliness of your own personal existence and things get even more mind-boggling. Why does the universe exist at all? Why is it fine-tuned to human life? Why does it seem to be telling us that there are other universes out there, even other yous?
In these articles, we confront these mysteries of existence and others, from the possibility that the universe is a hologram to the near-certainty that you are a zombie.
Existence: Where did we come from?
WHY are we here? Where did we come from? According to the Boshongo people of central Africa, before us there was only darkness, water and the great god Bumba. One day Bumba, in pain from a stomach ache, vomited up the sun. The sun evaporated some of the water, leaving land. Still in discomfort, Bumba vomited up the moon, the stars and then the leopard, the crocodile, the turtle, and finally, humans.
This creation myth, like many others, wrestles with the kinds of questions that we all still ask today. Fortunately, as will become clear from this special issue of New Scientist, we now have a tool to provide the answers: science.
When it come to these mysteries of existence the first scientific evidence was
discovered about 80 years ago, when Edwin Hubble began to make observations in the 1920s with the 100-inch telescope on Mount Wilson in Los Angeles County.
To his surprise, Hubble found that nearly all the galaxies were moving away from us. Moreover, the more distant the galaxies, the faster they were moving away. The expansion of the universe was one of the most important intellectual discoveries of all time.
This finding transformed the debate about whether the universe had a beginning. If galaxies are moving apart now, they must therefore have been closer together in the past. If their speed had been constant, they would all have been on top of one another billions of years ago. Was this how the universe began? At that time many scientists were unhappy with the universe having a beginning because it seemed to imply that physics had broken down.
One would have to invoke an outside agency, which for convenience one can call God, to determine how the universe began. They therefore advanced theories in which the universe was expanding at the present time, but didn't have a beginning. Perhaps the best known was proposed in 1948, and called the
steady state theory.
According to this theory, the universe would have existed for ever and would have looked the same at all times. This last property had the great virtue of being a prediction that could be tested, a critical ingredient of the scientific method. And it was found lacking.
Observational evidence to confirm the idea that the universe had a very dense beginning came in October 1965, with the discovery of a faint background of microwaves throughout space. The only reasonable interpretation is that this background is radiation left over from an early hot and dense state. As the universe expanded, the radiation would have cooled until it is just the remnant we see today.
Theory backed this idea too. With Roger Penrose I showed that if Einstein's general theory of relativity is correct, there would be a singularity, a point of infinite density and space-time curvature, where time has a beginning.
The universe started off in the big bang, expanding faster and faster. This is called
inflation and it turns out that inflation in the early cosmos was much more rapid: the universe doubled in size many times in a tiny fraction of a second.
Inflation made the universe very large and very smooth and flat. However, it was not completely smooth: there were tiny variations from place to place. These variations caused minute differences in the temperature of the early universe, which we can see in the cosmic microwave background.
The variations mean that some regions will be expanding slightly less fast. The slower regions eventually stop expanding and collapse again to form galaxies and stars. And, in turn, solar systems.
We owe our existence to these variations. If the early universe had been completely smooth, there would be no stars and so life could not have developed. We are the product of primordial quantum fluctuations.
As will become clear (see "
Existence special: Cosmic mysteries, human questions"), many huge mysteries remain. Still, we are steadily edging closer to answering the age-old questions. Where did we come from? And are we the only beings in the universe who can ask these questions?
Existence: Why is there a universe?
AS DOUGLAS ADAMS once wrote: "The universe is big. Really big." And yet if our theory of the big bang is right, the universe was once a lot smaller. Indeed, at one point it was non-existent. Around 13.7 billion years ago time and space spontaneously sprang from the void. How did that happen?
Or to put it another way: why does anything exist at all? It's a big question, perhaps the biggest. The idea that the universe simply appeared out of nothing is difficult enough; trying to conceive of nothingness is perhaps even harder.
It is also a very reasonable question to ask from a scientific perspective. After all, some basic physics suggests that you and the rest of the universe are overwhelmingly unlikely to exist. The second law of thermodynamics, that most existentially resonant of physical laws, says that disorder, or entropy, always tends to increase. Entropy measures the number of ways you can rearrange a system's components without changing its overall appearance. The molecules in a hot gas, for example, can be arranged in many different ways to create the same overall temperature and pressure, making the gas a high-entropy system. In contrast, you can't rearrange the molecules of a living thing very much without turning it into a non-living thing, so you are a low-entropy system.
By the same logic, nothingness is the highest entropy state around - you can shuffle it around all you want and it still looks like nothing.
Given this law, it is hard to see how nothing could ever be turned into something, let alone something as big as a universe. But entropy is only part of the story. The other consideration is symmetry - a quality that appears to exert profound influence on the physical universe wherever it crops up. Nothingness is very symmetrical indeed. "There's no telling one part from another, so it has total symmetry," says physicist Frank Wilczek of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
And as physicists have learned over the past few decades, symmetries are made to be broken. Wilczek's own speciality is quantum chromodynamics, the theory that describes how quarks behave deep within atomic nuclei. It tells us that nothingness is a precarious state of affairs. "You can form a state that has no quarks and antiquarks in it, and it's totally unstable," says Wilczek. "It spontaneously starts producing quark-antiquark pairs." The perfect symmetry of nothingness is broken. That leads to an unexpected conclusion, says Victor Stenger, a physicist at the University of Colorado in Boulder: despite entropy, "something is the more natural state than nothing".
"According to quantum theory, there is no state of 'emptiness'," agrees Frank Close of the University of Oxford. Emptiness would have precisely zero energy, far too exacting a requirement for the uncertain quantum world. Instead, a vacuum is actually filled with a roiling broth of particles that pop in and out of existence. In that sense this magazine, you, me, the moon and everything else in our universe are just excitations of the quantum vacuum.
Before the big bang
Might something similar account for the origin of the universe itself? Quite plausibly, says Wilczek. "There is no barrier between nothing and a rich universe full of matter," he says. Perhaps the big bang was just nothingness doing what comes naturally.
This, of course, raises the question of what came before the big bang, and how long it lasted. Unfortunately at this point basic ideas begin to fail us; the concept "before" becomes meaningless. In the words of Stephen Hawking, it's like asking what is north of the north pole.
Even so, there is an even more mind-blowing consequence of the idea that something can come from nothing: perhaps nothingness itself cannot exist.
Here's why. Quantum uncertainty allows a trade-off between time and energy, so something that lasts a long time must have little energy. To explain how our universe has lasted for the billions of years that it has taken galaxies to form, solar systems to coalesce and life to evolve into bipeds who ask how something came from nothing, its total energy must be extraordinarily low.
That fits with the generally accepted view of the universe's early moments, which sees space-time undergoing a brief burst of expansion immediately after the big bang. This heady period, known as inflation, flooded the universe with energy. But according to Einstein's general theory of relativity, more space-time also means more gravity. Gravity's attractive pull represents negative energy that can cancel out inflation's positive energy - essentially constructing a cosmos for nothing. "I like to say that the universe is the ultimate free lunch," says Alan Guth, a cosmologist at MIT who came up with the inflation theory 30 years ago.
Physicists used to worry that creating something from nothing would violate all sorts of physical laws such as the conservation of energy. But if there is zero overall energy to conserve, the problem evaporates - and a universe that simply popped out of nothing becomes not just plausible, but probable. "Maybe a better way of saying it is that something is nothing," says Guth.
None of this really gets us off the hook, however. Our understanding of creation relies on the validity of the laws of physics, particularly quantum uncertainty. But that implies that the laws of physics were somehow encoded into the fabric of our universe before it existed. How can physical laws exist outside of space and time and without a cause of their own? Or, to put it another way, why is there something rather than nothing?
Existence: Are we alone in the universe?
HAVE you ever looked up at the night sky and wondered if somebody, or something, is looking back? If perhaps somewhere out there, the mysterious spark we call life has flickered into existence?
Intuitively, it feels as if we can't be alone. For every one of the 2000 stars you can see with your naked eye, there are another 50 million in our galaxy, which is one of 100 billion galaxies. In other words, the star we orbit is just one of 10,000 billion billion in the cosmos. Surely there is another blue dot out there - a home to intelligent life like us? The simple fact is, we don't know.
One way to estimate the number of intelligent civilisations was
devised by astronomer Frank Drake. His equation takes into account the rate of star formation, the fraction of those stars with planets and the likelihood that life, intelligent life, and intelligent creatures capable of communicating with us, will arise.
It is now possible to put numbers on some of those factors. We know that about 20 stars are born in the Milky Way every year and we have spotted more than 560 planets around stars other than the sun. About a quarter of stars harbour a planet similar in mass to Earth (
Science, vol 330, p 653).
But estimating the biological factors is little more than guesswork. We know that life is incredibly adaptable once it emerges, but not how good it is at getting started in the first place.
Unique planet
Some astronomers believe life is almost inevitable on any habitable planet. Others suspect simple life is common, but intelligent life exceedingly rare. A few believe that our planet is unique. "Life may or may not form easily," says physicist Paul Davies of Arizona State University in Tempe. "We're completely in the dark."
So much for equations. What about evidence? Finding life on Mars probably won't help, as it would very likely share its origin with Earthlings. "Impacts have undoubtedly conveyed microorganisms back and forth," says Davies. "Mars and Earth are not independent ecosystems."
Discovering life on Titan would be more revealing. Titan is the only other place in the solar system with liquid on its surface - albeit lakes of ethane. "We are starting to think that if there is life on Titan it would have a separate origin," says Dirk Schulze-Makuch at Washington State University in Pullman. "If we can find a separate origin we can say 'OK, there's a lot of life in the universe'."
Discovering alien microbes in our solar system would be some sort of proof that we are not alone, but what we really want to know is whether there is another intelligence out there. For 50 years astronomers have swept the skies with radio telescopes for any hint of a message. So far, nothing.
But that doesn't mean ET isn't there. It just might not know we're here. The only evidence of our existence that reaches beyond the solar system are radio signals and light from our cities. "We've only been broadcasting powerful radio signals since the second world war," says Seth Shostak of the SETI Institute in Mountain View, California. So our calling card has leaked just 70 light years into space, a drop in the ocean. If the Milky Way was the size of London and Earth was at the base of Nelson's Column, our radio signals would still not have left Trafalgar Square.
"It's probably safe to say that even if the local galaxy is choc-a-bloc with aliens, none of them know that Homo sapiens is here," says Shostak. That also works in reverse. Given the size of the universe and the speed of light, most stars and planets are simply out of range.
It is also possible that intelligent life is separated from us by time. After all, human intelligence has only existed for a minuscule fraction of Earth's history and may just be a fleeting phase (see page 39). It may be too much of a stretch to hope that a nearby planet not only harbours intelligent life, but that it does so right now.
But let's say we did make contact with aliens. How would we react? NASA has plans, and most religions claim they would be able to absorb the idea, but the bottom line is we won't know until it happens.
Most likely we'll never find out. Even if Earth is not the only planet with intelligent life, we appear destined to live out our entire existence as if it were - but with a nagging feeling that it can't be. How's that for existential uncertainty?
Existence: Am I a hologram?
TAKE a look around you. The walls, the chair you're sitting in, your own body - they all seem real and solid. Yet there is a possibility that everything we see in the universe - including you and me - may be nothing more than a hologram.
It sounds preposterous, yet there is already some evidence that it may be true, and we could know for sure within a couple of years. If it does turn out to be the case, it would turn our common-sense conception of reality inside out.
The idea has a long history, stemming from an apparent paradox posed by Stephen Hawking's work in the 1970s. He discovered that black holes slowly radiate their mass away. This Hawking radiation appears to carry no information, however, raising the question of what happens to the information that described the original star once the black hole evaporates. It is a cornerstone of physics that information cannot be destroyed.
In 1972 Jacob Bekenstein at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, showed that the information content of a black hole is proportional to the two-dimensional surface area of its event horizon - the point-of-no-return for in-falling light or matter. Later, string theorists managed to show how the original star's information could be encoded in tiny lumps and bumps on the event horizon, which would then imprint it on the Hawking radiation departing the black hole.
This solved the paradox, but theoretical physicists Leonard Susskind and Gerard 't Hooft decided to take the idea a step further: if a three-dimensional star could be encoded on a black hole's 2D event horizon, maybe the same could be true of the whole universe. The universe does, after all, have a horizon 42 billion light years away, beyond which point light would not have had time to reach us since the big bang. Susskind and 't Hooft suggested that this 2D "surface" may encode the entire 3D universe that we experience - much like the 3D hologram that is projected from your credit card.
It sounds crazy, but we have already seen a sign that it may be true. Theoretical physicists have long suspected that space-time is pixelated, or grainy. Since a 2D surface cannot store sufficient information to render a 3D object perfectly, these pixels would be bigger in a hologram. "Being in the [holographic] universe is like being in a 3D movie," says Craig Hogan of Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois. "On a large scale, it looks smooth and three-dimensional, but if you get close to the screen, you can tell that it is flat and pixelated."
Quantum fluctuation
Hogan recently looked at readings from an exquisitely sensitive motion-detector in Hanover, Germany, which was built to detect gravitational waves - ripples in the fabric of space-time. The GEO600 experiment has yet to find one, but in 2008
an unexpected jitter left the team scratching their heads, until Hogan suggested that it might arise from "quantum fluctuations" due to the graininess of space-time. By rights, these should be far too small to detect, so the fact that they are big enough to show up on GEO600's readings is tentative supporting evidence that the universe really is a hologram, he says.
Bekenstein is cautious: "The holographic idea is only a hypothesis, supported by some special cases." Better evidence may come from a dedicated instrument being built at Fermilab, which Hogan expects to be up and running within a couple of years.
A positive result would challenge every assumption we have about the world we live in. It would show that everything is a projection of something occurring on a flat surface billions of light years away from where we perceive ourselves to be. As yet we have no idea what that "something" might be, or how it could manifest itself as a world in which we can do the school run or catch a movie at the cinema. Maybe it would make no difference to the way we live our lives, but somehow I doubt it.
Existence: Where did my consciousness come from?
THINK for a moment about a time before you were born. Where were you? Now think ahead to a time after your death. Where will you be? The brutal answer is: nowhere. Your life is a brief foray on Earth that started one day for no reason and will inevitably end.
But what a foray. Like the whole universe, your consciousness popped into existence out of nothingness and has evolved into a rich and complex entity full of wonder and mystery.
Contemplating this leads to a host of mind-boggling questions. What are the odds of my consciousness existing at all? How can such a thing emerge from nothingness? Is there any possibility of it surviving my death? And what is consciousness anyway?
Answering these questions is incredibly difficult. Philosopher Thomas Nagel once asked, "What is it like to be a bat?" Your response might be to imagine flying around in the dark, seeing the world in the echoes of high-frequency sounds. But that isn't the answer Nagel was looking for. He wanted to emphasise that there is no way of knowing what it is like for a bat to feel like a bat. That, in essence, is the conundrum of consciousness.
Neuroscientists and philosophers fall into two broad camps. One thinks that consciousness is an emergent property of the brain and that once we fully understand the intricate workings of neuronal activity, consciousness will be laid bare. The other doubts it will be that simple. They agree that consciousness emerges from the brain, but argue that Nagel's question will always remain unanswered: knowing every detail of a bat's brain cannot tell us what it is like to be a bat. This is often called the "hard problem" of consciousness, and seems scientifically intractable - for now.
Meanwhile, "there are way too many so-called easy problems to worry about", says Anil Seth of the University of Sussex in Brighton, UK.
One is to look for signatures of consciousness in brain activity, in the hope that this takes us closer to understanding what it is. Various brain areas have been found to be active when we are conscious of something and quiet when we are not. For example, Stanislas Dehaene of the French National Institute of Health and Medical Research in Gif sur Yvette and colleagues have identified such regions in our frontal and parietal lobes (
Nature Neuroscience, vol 8, p 1391).
Consciousness explained
This is consistent with a theory of consciousness proposed by Bernard Baars of the Neuroscience Institute in San Diego, California. He posited that most non-conscious experiences are processed in specialised local regions of the brain such as the visual cortex. We only become conscious of this activity when the information is broadcast to a network of neurons called the global workspace - perhaps the regions pinpointed by Dehaene.
But others believe the theory is not telling the whole story. "Does global workspace theory really explain consciousness, or just the ability to report about consciousness?" asks Seth.
Even so, the idea that consciousness seems to be an emergent property of the brain can take us somewhere. For example, it makes the odds of your own consciousness existing the same as the odds of you being born at all, which is to say, very small. Just think of that next time you suffer angst about your impending return to nothingness.
As for whether individual consciousness can continue after death, "it is extremely unlikely that there would be any form of self-consciousness after the physical brain decays", says philosopher Thomas Metzinger of the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany.
Extremely unlikely, but not impossible. Giuilio Tononi of the University of Wisconsin-Madison argues that consciousness is the outcome of how complex matter, including the brain, integrates information. "According to Tononi's theory, if one could build a device or a system that integrated information exactly the same way as a living brain, it would generate the same conscious experiences," says Seth. Such a machine might allow your consciousness to survive death. But it would still not know what it is like to be a bat.
One example of fine-tuning, however, remains difficult to dismiss: the accelerating expansion of the universe by dark energy. Quantum theory predicts that the strength of this mysterious force should be about 10120 times larger than the value we observe.
This discrepancy seems extraordinarily fortuitous. According to Nobel prizewinner Steven Weinberg, if dark energy were not so tiny, galaxies could never have formed and we would not be here. The explanation Weinberg grudgingly accepts is that we must live in a universe with a "just right" value for dark energy. "The dark energy is still the only quantity that appears to require a multiverse explanation," admits Weinberg. "I don't see much evidence of fine-tuning of any other physical constants."
Existence: Am I a zombie?
IN A nutshell, you don't know.
Philosopher René Descartes hit the nail on the head when he wrote "cogito ergo sum". The only evidence you have that you exist as a self-aware being is your conscious experience of thinking about your existence. Beyond that you're on your own. You cannot access anyone else's conscious thoughts, so you will never know if they are self-aware.
That was in 1644 and little progress has been made since. If anything, we are even less sure about the reality of our own existence.
It is not so long ago that computers became powerful enough to let us create alternative worlds. We have countless games and simulations that are, effectively, worlds within our world. As technology improves, these simulated worlds will become ever more sophisticated. The "original" universe will eventually be populated by a near-infinite number of advanced, virtual civilisations. It is hard to imagine that they will not contain autonomous, conscious beings. Beings like you and me.
According to
Nick Bostrom, a philosopher at the University of Oxford who first made this argument, this simple fact makes it entirely plausible that our reality is in fact a simulation run by entities from a more advanced civilisation.
How would we know? Bostrom points out that the only way we could be sure is if a message popped up in front of our eyes saying: "You are living in a computer simulation." Or, he says, if the operators transported you to their reality (which, of course, may itself be a simulation).
Although we are unlikely to get proof, we might find some hints about our reality. "I think it might be feasible to get evidence that would at least give weak clues," says Bostrom.
Economist Robin Hanson of George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, is not so sure. If we did find anything out, the operators could just rewind everything back to a point where the clue could be erased. "We won't ever notice if they don't want us to," Hanson says. Anyway, seeking the truth might even be asking for trouble. We could be accused of ruining our creators' fun and cause them to pull the plug.
Zombie invasion
Hanson has a slightly different take on the argument. "Small simulations should be far more numerous than large ones," he says. That's why he thinks it is far more likely that he lives in a simulation where he is the only conscious, interesting being. In other words, everyone else is an extra: a zombie, if you will. However, he would have no way of knowing, which brings us back to Descartes.
Of course, we do have access to a technology that would have looked like sorcery in Descartes's day: the ability to peer inside someone's head and read their thoughts. Unfortunately, that doesn't take us any nearer to knowing whether they are sentient. "Even if you measure brainwaves, you can never know exactly what experience they represent," says psychologist Bruce Hood at the University of Bristol, UK.
If anything, brain scanning has undermined Descartes's maxim. You, too, might be a zombie. "I happen to be one myself," says Stanford University philosopher Paul Skokowski. "And so, even if you don't realise it, are you."
Skokowski's assertion is based on the belief, particularly common among neuroscientists who study brain scans, that we do not have free will. There is no ghost in the machine; our actions are driven by brain states that lie entirely beyond our control. "I think, therefore I am" might be an illusion.
So, it may well be that you live in a computer simulation in which you are the only self-aware creature. I could well be a zombie and so could you. Have an interesting day.
